Tag: Clinical-Nursing

Discussion Activity 9 – Role-play as a current U.S. Supreme Court Justice

Role Play as a current U.S. Supreme Court Justice. Share information on your justice (background, experiences, cases participated in etc.). Also, please share what you found most interesting about the justice you selected. This should be no more than two short paragraphs! Please note the reference(s) you used in preparing your posting at the end of your posting .

Detailed directions are found in the Discussion Forum, “Monocle Restaurant” section located under Course Overview.

Make sure to check out the grading information as well.

Methods Used by Interest Groups to Influence Public Policy

Our government leaders
primary responsibility
 is coming up with 
solutions to public problems
 
. Those ideas are what are known as 
public policy
. Interest groups not only work to influence our Congress and President in putting their ideas into legislative form, but they may also try to influence judges in the decisions they may make. Sometimes these groups have the opportunity to influence federal workers when they write federal regulations. More recently, interest groups have recognized that they should try to influence the American public regarding their positions on issues.

The following are 
Methods
 used by interest groups to influence our leaders:

PERSUASION: 
(
People
 
) – – interest groups
 “exploit the mass communications media”
 to influence the public to contact their representatives to support the group’s position on an issue or to vote for candidates who will support their positions once they are elected to public office (Magleby, 
Government by the People
 2018 Elections, 26 edition, 121-122)

For example, the National Health Association of America ran 
television ads
 that attacked Clinton’s Healthcare plan in 1993-1994 and the AFL-CIO spent $35 million to run “Mediscare” ads on television against Republican candidates in order to “frighten” senior citizens to vote against “cuts” in Medicare.

Interest groups ran television ads trying to persuade the public to contact their U.S. Senators to support or oppose President G. W. Bush’s nominee, Samuel Alito, for Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court.

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Sometimes interest groups like the National Rifle Association (NRA) or National Federation of Independent Businesses (NFIB) who represent gun owners and small businessmen send out 
“mass mailings”
 to their membership to alert them that Congress is considering legislation of concern to their organization.

Prior to the 2011 November election, groups supporting or opposing Ohio’s SB 5 law, banning collective bargaining by public employees (public employees could continue to bargain about wages and workplace conditions, but not pensions or healthcare) put ads on television and also sent fliers to voters to influence them to support their position on this controversial issue.

The 
Internet
 has also helped enormously in informing members of these various organizations about what is going on in Washington, D.C. or their state capitals. They can at a moment’s notice send an e-mail or “action alerts” to their members!

Image: Courtesy of 
pxfuel
 under 
Public Domain

LITIGATION: 
(
Judges
)
 – – interest groups try to influence judges’ decisions. How? They provide counsel and dollars ($$s) to plaintiffs so they can go to court to challenge state or federal laws that injured them (Magleby, 
Government by the People
 2018 Elections, 26 edition, 122).

For example is 
Brown v Board of Education
, the NAACP provided counsel and money to the Brown family to challenge state segregation in public schools.

 

For more information on 
Brown v Topeka Board of Education
, go to:

Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education

If the interest groups like 
NOW
 are
 not 
a party to a suit or assisting a plaintiff in a particular case, they may write an 
amicus curiae brief 
to try to influence the Justices on the U.S. Supreme Court.

For example, the NOW organization tries to influence the Justices’ decision on an abortion case by submitting legal arguments supporting abortion rights. By writing this brief, NOW hopes to convince the Court to support its position on abortion rights.

The Family Research Council (FRC)
 has submitted an amicus brief in the 
Baxter v. Montana
 case on assisted suicide to the Montana State Supreme Court. To review the FRC amicus brief go to : To review the FRC amicus brief go to 
Family Research Council

Sometimes an interest groups like the 
National Rifle Association (NRA)
 are parties to a suit. The NRA sued the City of Chicago stating its handgun ban violated the U.S. Constitution’s Second Amendment right to bear arms. It has appealed the lower court’s decision to uphold the ban to the U.S. Supreme Court and the Court held the ban violated the Constitution.To learn more review 
McDonald v. City of Chicago, 2010,
 holding.

Also, the 
National Federation of Independent Business (NFIB
) sued Secretary Sebelius challenging the health care reform law’s constitutionality. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the individual mandate requiring individuals to purchase health insurance or pay a penalty based on Congress’ tax and spend for the general welfare. The Court held that Congress exceeded its authority under its commerce power when it wanted to reach an inactivity (non purchase of health insurance)–
National Association of Independent Business v. Sebelius 
(2012).  To learn more about this case read the Court’s decision at 
Business v. Sebelius
.

Image source: 
Thurgood Marshall 1957-09-17
 by Thomas J. O’Halloran, U.S. News & World Report Magazine under 
Public Domain

Does the U.S. Supreme Court have

to accept these briefs? Do they really

influence the Justices’ decision?

 

RULEMAKING: 
(
Federal Agencies
)
 – – interest groups work to influence federal agencies when they 
write federal regulations
 
. Congress gives the federal agencies, like the EPA, the ability to engage in the Rulemaking process. 
A rule is another word for regulation 
(Magleby 123).

Federal agencies write regulations that fill in the details that Congress cannot provide in its legislation. Congress can not anticipate every situation so it leaves to the federal agencies the responsibility to fill in the specific details. When the federal employees develop and later enforce these regulations, they help the President of the United States to 
carry out
 
the laws passed by Congress. Methods Used by Interest Groups to Influence Public Policy

Congress requires federal agencies to provide interested parties 
notice
 
of a proposed regulation and the 
opportunity to submit comments
 
concerning the impact of those regulations. The proposed rules or regulations are published in the 
Federal Register
.

Who is a Lobbyist and What Does He Do to Influence Our Leaders?

LOBBYING: 
(
Congress & President
)
 – – interest groups send individuals known as 
lobbyists
 
to Washington to influence Congress and the Executive Branch. Lobbyists, unlike constituents, influence for profit.

Lobbyists are 
paid
 
to advocate the concerns of their membership to public officials who actually write the laws; thus, putting their ideas to solve public problems in legislative form. Interest groups sometimes hire in-house lobbyists or independent lobbying firms to advocate on their group s behalf.

Who can be a lobbyist?

 

Lobbyists spend time researching issues important to their organization. They also spend a great deal of time in 
directly lobbying
 
Members of Congress, Congressional staff, and the Administration. This type of lobbying is crucial because a lobbyist has the opportunity to state his case to the public official and get his immediate response. The lobbyist can take the time to clarify issues, provide political intelligence, and constituent viewpoints on an issue(s).

A 
good 
lobbyist can be a truly invaluable asset to public officials and their staff because they meet with so many people on a daily basis — other Congressmen, Senators, party leaders, Administration staff, and representatives from other groups. They have a wealth of information to share!

Types of Lobbying:

Direct lobbying
 (as discussed above): Lobbyists present their organization s case directly 
(face-to-face)
 to members of Congress, Congressional staff, and the Executive Branch. This approach involves personal discussions in their offices or over the telephone.

It also can include monitoring hearings or testifying before a Congressional committee; writing speeches or floor statements; and drafting legislation (I often tell my students the lobbyist can go half way — provide the representative with a legislative proposal and a floor statement to go with it. The personal staff of Congressmen are often too busy to draft legislation and lobbyists can be very helpful.

Social lobbying: A lobbyist gains access to member of Congress in a 
social setting
 
— breakfasts, dinners, and receptions sponsored by interest groups. It is a much more informal environment used to gain trust and understanding of issues.

After the Republicans took “control” of Congress in 1995, they passed
 
rules banning gifts
 to members of Congress and staff. A lobbyist could only give a single gift of up to $50 to a Congressman or his staff and not more than $100 in a given year, e.g. two $50 dinners (U.S. House Committee on Ethics). As a result of this ban on gifts, legislators had fewer paid lunches and dinners (receptions were not included in the ban). There were no more charitable golfing events and paid vacations to the Bahamas either. Ironically, over a decade later, Americans voted out the Republicans because of, in part, the corruption scandals. The number one issue interestingly enough was not the Iraq War, but corruption in the 2006 midterm election.

Lobbyists often treat Senators and their staff for lunch at “The Monocle Restaurant,” a quiet, secluded location for serious confidential conversations.

On September 14, 2007, President Bush signed into law S.1, Honest Leadership and Open Government Act of 2007.
 It had been a top priority of the Democratic Congress in the 1st session, 110th Congress. You may remember that the Republicans had failed to pass the ethics/lobbying reform bill at the end of 2006 because, in part, the Democrats did not want to limit 527s ability to raise soft money.

President Bush had some objections to the legislation urging the need for more transparency for earmarks and eliminating the differences on air travel rules, etc. for both the President and U.S. Senate and the U.S. House. He asked Congress to make improvements on the new law in the near future to address his Administration s concerns.

Under the new law Congressmen are required to do the following:

• Must disclose the identity of lobbyist(s) who raise $15,000 in political contributions within a six month period (lobbyists collect individual contributions from their organizations members and bundle them together to give to candidates.).

• Disclose earmarks sometimes known as pork projects in advance (currently, the names of the sponsors are noted in the committee reports; this new law still does not require sponsors names to be noted in the bill).

• Bans Members and Congressional staff from accepting gifts from lobbyists or their clients.

• Senators and staff must now wait two years instead of one year before they lobby their colleagues; the House keeps the one year limit. This addresses the revolving door problem.

• Senators and President s campaigns must now pay the fair market value for private air travel; the House is banned from flying on private planes.

• Bans Members of Congress from attending lobbyist funded parties at Presidential Conventions.

• Strips pension benefits from a Congressman if he is convicted of bribery, perjury, or defrauds the government or if he is indicted or if there is an outstanding charges against him.

To learn more about current House rules on gifts/private travel, go to the 
House Committee on Standards of Official Conduct (Ethics Committee).
 Click the link below:

Code of Official Conduct | House Committee on Ethics

To learn more about current Senate rules on gifts/private travel, go to Senate Select Committee on Ethics and click on “Overview of the Senate Code of Conduct.”

Senate Select Committee on Ethics

Coalition or Cooperative lobbying
:
 
power in numbers
 
— Interest groups work together and lobby Members of Congress and the Executive Branch. The lobbyists jointly visit Members of Congress, host receptions, and write letters hoping to convince the legislator(s) to support their positions on the issue/legislation.

Grassroots lobbying: Lobbyists do not focus on Washington, but the 
American public
, the grassroots. They hope to mobilize the public to contact their representatives in support of the interest group s position on an issue, rather like the method of persuasion; they use petition drives, hold rallies, use radio and T. V. ads, etc.

Interest Groups’ Contributions

How much can interest groups contribute to candidates or political parties?

FEDERAL ELECTIONS ACTIVITIES
 : 
(Elect candidates
 
) – Interest groups try to influence elections by:

Obtaining information
 and 
money 
(PAC $) to candidates;

Sampling or purposefully targeting a potential office holder
 to demonstrate to voters where the candidate stands on certain issues or on the political spectrum;

Students are often interested in how much interest groups, corporations, and labor unions can contribute to political candidates during an election. As you are aware, 
money in politics
 
is of great concern to the American public because of its potential to corrupt our leaders once they are elected into office. There is always the fear that our representatives will vote the “way their contributors want them to.”

It is very expensive to run a Congressional race and even more to run for the presidency. Strong competition raises the cost of campaigning, so candidates often rely on interest groups’ political contributions, as well as, individual givers. Candidates use their own funds, mortgage their homes, and seek financial contributions from their friends, neighbors, and colleagues to finance their run for public office.

I often ask, “how much can a corporation or an individual contribute to a presidential campaign or a Congressional campaign? Generally, one student will say $100,000! It is much less than that amount because of post-Watergate laws that
 limit
 individual and interest group contributions in federal elections.

Today 
individuals
 can only contribute up to 
$2000
 per election (this amount will increase with inflation). Originally, individuals could only contribute $1000, but Congress raised the individual contribution level with the passage of the 
McCain-Feingold bill 
now known as the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act 2002. Methods Used by Interest Groups to Influence Public Policy

Corporate, labor union, and other interest group 
PAC’s
 
can only contribute up to 
$5000
 per election under the 1974 Amendments to the Federal Election Campaign Act. The McCain-Feingold bill did 
not
 
change the amount for interest group PAC’s.

On April 3, 2014, in
 McCutcheon v. FCC
, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the individual contribution limits to candidates running for federal office but struck down the total amount that individuals could give overall to candidates and political parties (and other political committees) in an election cycle.

As a result, you can give to as many candidates as you like as long as you keep within the $2,000 plus inflation limit for each candidate in any federal election. Individual political contributions to the RNC or DNC are not changed either, up to $32,400 per calendar year. Go to the Federal Election Commission’s (FEC) website to learn more about this decision at:

Ongoing Litigation – McCutcheon, et al. v. FEC

Campaign Contribution Limits

Individuals

 

$2000 primary election

$2000 general election

————————-

$4000 “max” in an election cycle

PAC’s

$5000 primary election

$5000 general election

————————-

$10,000 “max” in an election cycle

What is a Political Action Committee (PAC)?

But I am getting ahead of myself. Before I go any further, I want to explain why we have PAC’s. Early in the 20th century, Congress passed a federal law that 
prohibited
 
corporations and labor unions from 
directly
 contributing money to a Congressional and presidential campaign.

Corporations and labor unions were taking corporate profits and labor union dues without asking their stockholders, employees or members and contributing those dollars to political candidates and political parties. The AFL-CIO wanted to continue to provide financial contributions to candidates so it came up with the idea of creating an independent organization known as a “political action committee” (PAC).

The PAC was named the Committee on Political Education (COPE) and it asked the AFL-CIO labor union members to 
“voluntarily”
 
contribute money to it. The executive director of COPE then contributed those dollars to a political candidate or political party.

Textual Description of Image

It worked! The Congress said it was alright to set up these”political arms of organized interest groups” as we have roughly 4600 PAC’s today (
FEC Archive, 2009
).

NOTE the PAC image was added to each cited image.

Has a corporate, labor union, or other interest group PAC asked you to make a political contribution?

Do individuals and PAC’s have to

disclose contributions to the federal

government?

 

Can candidates get an unlimited

amount of PAC dollars?

 

Independent Expenditure or Issue Advocacy?

Individuals can 
spend an unlimited amount of money 
on behalf of a candidate. For example, Ms. Smith is running for Congress. She has a wealthy friend who is very supportive of her candidacy. Mr. Jones wants to be helpful so he spends $1 million on campaign advertisements that say “Vote for Ms. Smith. She is a friend of the environment!”

The only problem is that Mr. Jones 
cannot “coordinate “
 this activity with candidate Smith, e.g. ask her to edit the ads and he 
must disclose
 his expenditure to the FEC
 so the public knows who is trying to influence the election. This is known as an 
independent expenditure.

The U.S. Supreme Court has said “in dicta” (as an aside), that it is an independent expenditure if the 
television ad
 has language that says”vote for or against.” The Court considers this type of advertisement an “election ad.”

If a person just puts ads on television that focus on a particular issue like the environment or education, it is an 
issue advocacy ad
! Since it does not have the “vote for or against” language, it is not an independent expenditure. It is not considered “election ad,” you do 
not have to disclose
 this expenditure/sponsor of the ad to the FEC. In recent years, people and groups had avoided using the “vote for or against” language, but were putting a picture of the candidate or his name in the advertisement.

As a result, in 2002, Congress wrote in the
 McCain-Feingold bill
, (now known as BCRA) that there can’t be 
any
 
reference to candidate (picture or language) or to an election; otherwise, it is an “
 electioneering 
ad
 
” and it is an independent expenditure and must be disclosed to the FEC.

Just like individuals, 
interest groups
, can 
spend
 on behalf of a candidate or try to defeat a candidate they oppose. However, the 1947 Taft-Hartley Act prohibited corporations and labor unions from spending their profits or dues on these types of ads (for or against a candidate); they could spend these monies 
only
 on issue ads. Interestingly, corporate and union PACs could continue to spend their 
PAC dollars 
to benefit or defeat candidates!

More recently, the McCain-Feingold Bill also prohibited corporations from spending profits and dues on electioneering ads just prior to a primary and general election (
Ballotpedia, 2020
). They could put on issue ads during this time Methods Used by Interest Groups to Influence Public Policy.

In January 2010
, the U.S. Supreme in 
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission 
struck down this provision of the Mc-Cain-Feingold Bill and said that corporations and labor unions should be able to spend their monies on political (electioneering) ads and this ban violated their political speech rights under the First Amendment. The Court also struck down the section in the Taft-Hartley Act that prohibited corporations and unions from making independent expenditures favoring or opposing certain candidates. To learn more about this case, go to 
C-Span’s Washington Journal interview
.

Can Unions spend my labor union

dues on political activities even if I

don’t support their candidates?

 

Who Benefits from Interest Group Money?

In the 1980’s, Congress talked about banning PAC money. Congress did 
not
 
ban interest group money because it benefits 
incumbents
 over challengers, the majority party over the minority party, and women and minority candidates. Also, some Congressmen raised concerns that an outright ban of PAC contributions violated the U.S. Constitution (
FEC, n.d.
)

In 1990’s, the focus of campaign finance reform shifted to the growth of 
“soft money”
 
raised by political parties for “party-building” activities like registering voters and getting to the polls on election day. In our next lesson, I will discuss the ban on soft money (McCain-Feingold bill), its impact on political parties, and the growth of 
“527’s”
 
what I refer to as “political shadow groups” and SuperPACs Methods Used by Interest Groups to Influence Public Policy

Doctrine of Selective Incorporation

Some states during the 19th and 20th centuries began to either fail to enforce or interpret broadly enough their own states’ Bill of Rights – – protecting the individuals who lived in their states from the 
abuse by the state governments
 of their liberties. Individuals brought suit to challenge state laws that unreasonably restricted their freedom of speech and religion, denied them the right to counsel, and the right to not be unreasonably searched by state and local police etc.

The U.S. Supreme Court had made it clear that the Bill of Rights applied only to federal government’s actions that infringed on the list of protected liberties found in first 10 Amendments 
.
 It had to find the “vehicle” or means by which to apply these protected liberties to 
state governments
. It did this on a case-by-case basis through a process known as 
selective incorporation
.

The Court has selectively incorporated or “poured into” the 
14th Amendment’s Due Process Clause
, most provisions of the Bill of Rights, thus 
limiting the power of state and local governments to infringe on individual liberty. 
States may always provide greater protections, but not fewer protections through their state constitutions and state laws. So, for example, a State X could provide same sex couples the right to marry.

The justices had to address this question:

What rights should be incorporated to restrict the states from infringing on liberty?

Justice Cardozo, in 
Palko v. Connecticut 
(1937 
)
 said”the rights to be incorporated are those implicit in the concept of ordered liberty, and thus through the Fourteenth Amendment become valid against the states”(Palko). “…[R]ights so important that neither liberty nor justice would exist if they were sacrificed” (Palko); those rights must be selectively incorporated to restrict the states from infringing on our liberties.

Some provisions have not been incorporated to reach the states because
:

States have been found to have done a good job protecting these rights;

They are not so critical that “liberty or justice” would be sacrificed if not incorporated;

The U.S. Supreme Court has not yet addressed the issue.

 

This is an image labeled the Doctrine Selective Incorporation. 

It has a two handled faucet as you might find in the bathroom of your home. The faucet is labeled Selective Incorporation. The water stream coming from it is labeled The Bill of Rights 1-10 Amendments {Applies to the Federal Government – limits the Federal Government from infringing “unreasonably” upon individuals’ liberties}. 

The water contains the words Speech, Jury Trial, Religion, Search & Seizure, Counsel. 

The water flows into a cup labeled 14th Amendment Due Process “Liberty” with an arrow pointing downward to the words State Governments Most amendments have been ‘selectively’ incorporated to apply to the states, and a final arrow downward to People. 

 

The amendments that 
have been selectively incorporated
 
are:

1st Amendment — all provisions of the 1st Amendment;

2nd Amendment — right to bear arms

4th Amendment — protection against unreasonable searches and seizures;

5th Amendment — Double Jeopardy, Protections Against Self-Incrimination, Eminent Domain;

6th Amendment — all protections for the accused at trial;

8th Amendment — Prohibition against cruel and unusual punishment and freedom from “excessive” fines

9th Amendment — right to marital privacy

Amendments that have 
NOT 
been selectively incorporated are:

3rd Amendment — Quartering of soldiers;

5th Amendment — Grand Jury requirement for capital or serious crimes;

7th Amendment – – Right to a Jury Trial in a Civil case;

8th Amendment — Freedom from “excessive” bail.

To determine if a state protects rights that have not been selectively incorporated into the 14th Amendment Due Process Clause, look to the state’s constitution and its Bill of Rights. If the state constitution does not protect a certain liberty that is protected by the U.S. Constitution then go to court and hope to argue before the U.S. Supreme Court that it is time to selectively incorporate that right protected by the National Bill of Rights and make it apply to all fifty states. However, if a liberty is not protected by the state constitution or the U.S. Constitution, then advocates for it being protected must either work to change the state constitution or U.S. Constitution through the amendment process.

PLS 1120 AMERICAN FEDERAL GOVERNMENT Week 1

 

List of Topics and Sub-Modules for Week 1

 

America’s Constitutional Origins I

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Read the 
online lessons
 pertaining to America’s Constitutional Origins.

Check out and utilize all the learning resources used in this week’s discussion.

Participate in 
this week’s discussion
 at the “
Monocle Restaurant
” by introducing yourself.

E-mail student information
 to the instructor.

PLS 1120 AMERICAN FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

Complete Pre Survey
 (not graded a graded assignment–take the “temperature” of class regarding basic knowledge of American Government–and for 
attendance purposes
.

Participate in the optional discussion activity, the ‘
Nature of Man
‘.

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion. 

 

Introduction and Objectives

Link

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HUMAN-WRITTEN
AND
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Learning Activities

Link

 

America’s Constitutional Origins

Link

 

The Declaration of Independence

Link

 

Discussion – Nature of Man

Discussion Topic

 

 
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Introductions

Discussion Topic

 

 
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Pre -Survey

Quiz

 

 
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America’s Constitutional Origins II

 

 

 

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Read the 
Online Lessons: 

Articles of Confederation

Constitutional Convention

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 page.

Check out and utilize all the learning resources used in 
this week’s discussion
.

Participate in the 
Founding Fathers and Mothers Discussion. 

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion.

Introduction and Objectives

Link

 

Learning Activities

Link

 

Articles of Confederation

Link

 

Constitutional Convention

Link

 

 

America’s Constitutional Origins III

 

 

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Read the 
Online Lessons: 

Adoption of the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights

PLS 1120 AMERICAN FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 Page.

Participate in the 
Founding Fathers and Mothers Discussion. 

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion. 

Introduction and Objectives

Link

 

Learning Activities

Link

 

Adoption of U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights

Link

 

Discussion Activity 1 – Founding Fathers and Mothers

Discussion Topic

 

 
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Constitutional Limitations on Power

 

 

 

 

 

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Read 
Federalist #10, 51, 78
 found on the Learning Activities page.

Read the 
Online Lesson: 
Constitutional Limitations on Power.

Complete the 
Federalist Worksheets
 (optional activities)

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 page.

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion. 

Introduction and Objectives

Link

 

Learning Activities

Link

 

Constitutional Limitations on Power

Link

 

Federalist #10 Worksheet

Link

 

Federalist #51 Worksheet

Link

 

Federalist #78 Worksheet

Link

 

Week 2

 

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List of Topics and Sub-Modules for Week 2

 

Interest Groups I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

16 Week Class:

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Read the 
Online Lesson: 

Influence of Special Interest in America

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 page.

Post any questions you have on the 
Help Discussion. 

12 and 8 Week Class:

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Read the 
Online Lesson: 

Influence of Special Interest in America

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 page.

Take 
Test 1
 located in the Tests folder under the Content Tab.

Post any questions you have on the 
Help Discussion. 

 

Introduction and Objectives

Link

 

Learning Activities

Link

 

Influence of Special Interests in America

Link

 

 

Interest Groups II

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Read the 
Online Lessons: 

Methods Used by Interest Groups

Methods Used by Interest Groups – Continued

Participate in the 
Interest Group Discussion. 

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion. 

Introduction and Objectives

Link

 

Methods Used by Interest Groups

Link

 

Methods Used by Interest Groups – Continued

Link

 

Discussion Activity  3 – Interest Group

Discussion Topic

 

American Federalism and Directions for Test 1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

16 Week Class:

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Read a 
newspaper or magazine article
 about an issue facing the federal or state government.

Read the 
Online Lessons: 

American Federalism

Powers of the National and State Governments

PLS 1120 AMERICAN FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

Distribution of Federal Dollars to States

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 page.

Participate in the 
Federalism Discussion. 

Take 
Test 1
 located in the Tests folder under the Content Tab.

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion. 

12 and 8 Week Class:

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Read a 
newspaper or magazine article
 about an issue facing the federal or state government.

Read the 
Online Lessons: 

American Federalism

Powers of the National and State Governments

Distribution of Federal Dollars to States

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 page.

Participate in the 
Federalism Discussion. 

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion. 

Introduction and Objectives

Link

 

Learning Activities

Link

 

Learning Activities 12 and 8 weeks

Link

 

American Federalism

Link

 

Powers of the National and State Governments

Link

 

Distribution of Federal Dollars to States

Link

 

Directions for Test 1

Link

 

iscussion Activity 2 – Federalism

Discussion Topic

 

 
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Week 3

 

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Political Parties & Political Ideology

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Read the 
Online Lessons: 

Political Parties

Functions of a Political Party

Responsibilities of a Political Party

Political Ideology

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 page.

Participate in the 
Political Parties Discussion. 

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion. 

Introduction and Objectives

Link

 

Learning Activities

Link

 

Political Parties – An Introduction

Link

 

Introduction to Political Parties

A political party is defined as:

“a group of citizens that under a party banner seek to get candidates elected to public office in order to make party positions on issues into law.”

Unlike interest groups, political parties spend 
all
 of their time working to get candidates elected! They are always looking for people who support their positions on issues and are interested in public service. 
Recruiting candidates
 to run under their party’s banner is one of the most important and difficult tasks for political parties. It is very hard to find people who will leave their comfortable and secure jobs to enter the uncertain world of politics.

Today political parties are 
significantly
 
weaker
 than in the 19th and early 20th centuries when powerful party bosses “ran the show” and candidates were more beholden to them for their offices. 
Direct Primaries
reduced the power of party leaders in the nomination process and gave the “grassroots party members,” the 
voters
, the power to determine who would run for public office under their party banner.

Also, the 
ban on soft money
 has made it more difficult for the Republican and Democratic parties to get their message out through television ads. If they want to run those ads they have to use hard money which they much prefer to go to candidates! As political parties feared, other groups have stepped in to fill the gap.

As I noted in our previous lesson, 
“527’s”
have been established to help Republican and Democratic candidates get elected. Moveon.org and other “527’s” that supported John Kerry for President put ads on television and worked to “get out the vote.” Some argue that this helped and hurt Kerry because he benefited from the negative advertising against Bush, but unfortunately, he could not control the “message” like the Bush campaign. Some argued that Swift Boat Veterans for Truth helped cast doubt on Kerry’s Vietnam record and foreign/defense policies in general. During the 2012 presidential election, “SuperPAC’s” have also played a similar role in helping candidates by raising soft money from wealthy individuals for television advertising. Newt Gingrich during the primary race really benefited from one wealthy benefactor who established a “SuperPAC” on his behalf. Even Mitt Romney and President Obama had SuperPAC’s helping them. In 2016, SuperPACs helped Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton and other candidates.  To see the list of SuperPACs go to 
Open Secrets
 to look at Outside Spending.

We will talk about the ban on soft money and the impact of “527’s” (and “SuperPAC’s”) later in this lesson.

Why do we have 
two major
 political parties?

“Thomas Nast first represented the GOP (Grand Old Party) as an 
elephant
 in 1874 when the Democrats were trying to panic Republican voters by suggesting that President Grant would seek a third term. Nast portrayed the party thus because elephants are steadfast and controlled when calm, yet unmanageable when frightened. This remains the symbol today ( The Rule of Law 215).

The 
donkey
 has been associated with the Democratic Party since 1837 when Andrew Jackson was labeled as a ‘jackass’ for his stubbornly-held political views. As a result, Jackson began using the donkey on his campaign posters. Political cartoonist Thomas Nast elevated the donkey to the status of party icon in his political illustrations in Harpers Weekly ( The Rule of Law 214).

There are two major political parties in this country-the 
Democratic Party
 and the 
Grand Old Party (GOP) 
, 
known as the 2nd Republican Party. There are other third parties or minor parties as well.

Our two-party political system was born in 1840 when the Democratic Party and Whig Parties were finally complex political machines we recognize today- maintaining decentralized party structures, holding national presidential conventions, writing 
party platforms
 stating positions on issues, attracting strong grassroots support, and dividing Congress along party lines.

The Democratic Party has its 
direct
 roots in the party of Thomas Jefferson (Jefferson Republicans), and the GOP rose from the ashes of the Whig Party.

Why did we establish political

parties in the first place? I thought

founding fathers didn’t like them?

 

How do I spot “fake news”?

 

The GOP is the only third party that has become a majority party in our country. This happened because the Whig Party could not resolve the slavery issue within its ranks. As you are aware, the Democratic Party was also split on this issue-southern Democrats supporting slavery and northern Democrats were opposed to the institution.

As you may remember, the Democratic Party originally supported states’ rights and a weaker national government (it did not support establishing a national bank or federal funding for national roads and canals, etc.)

At right we see Abraham Lincoln of the Grand Old Party.

Don’t the Democrats support

“big government” to protect rights

of individuals?

 

After the Civil War the Republican Party controlled the presidency and Congress (with the exception of Grover Cleveland) until 1912 when Woodrow Wilson, a New Jersey Democratic Governor and former President of Princeton, won the presidency.

The Democratic and Republican parties have survived because they have both reached out to diverse group of citizens and modified their positions on issues.

Why do third parties have difficulty competing with the Republican and Democratic parties?

Third parties often have a difficult time competing with the major parties because they do not appeal to a broad group of citizens or they rally around a charismatic figure like Ross Perot.

Also, as in the 2004 presidential election, the 
Green Party
and 
Reform Party
could not get electoral votes because their presidential candidates could not win the most votes in a state. If third parties cannot win the presidency, it is 
very difficult
 to win other national, state, and local offices.

At left is Ralph Nader who ran as a Green Party candidate in 2000.

You need to have a broad base of public support to win an election and as a result, the major parties are forced to come “to the center” to attract as many voters as possible-that is why 
“unifying the voters”
 is one of the most important functions of a political party. We will discuss the impact of the 
Electoral College
 on third parties in a later lesson.

If a political party cannot reach out to people from all walks of life, with varying political ideologies-conservative, moderates, liberals alike, and modify its positions on issues to address changing times and concerns of the public, it will have difficulty competing or even surviving at all.

Even if third party candidates lose an election, they can make a difference on public policy because they may run on an issue that is really important to the American people like Ross Perot did in 1992 (he ran as an independent candidate, and later “United We Stand” became the Reform Party). He was concerned about the size of our national debt and urged reducing our federal deficits.

Even though Perot lost both presidential elections, both major parties recognized the need to address this problem and co-opted the issue of deficit reduction. In the mid 1990’s, Democrats and Republicans were able to “balance the budget” and even get a surplus. Although this was a positive development, it took away the Reform Party’s key issue. As you are aware, the Reform Party today is floundering because it is still trying to rediscover an issue(s) that will appeal strongly to the American public.

Functions of a Political Party

Link

 

Responsibilities of a Political Party

Link

 

Political Ideology

Link

 

Discussion Activity  4 – Political Parties

Discussion Topic

 

 
Available on Jun 16, 2025 12:01 AM. 
Access restricted before availability starts.

 
Available until Jul 6, 2025 11:30 PM. 
Access restricted after availability ends.

 

Political Socialization and Public Opinion

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Read the 
Online Lessons: 

Political Socialization and Public Opinion

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 page.

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion. 

Introduction and Objectives

Link

 

Learning Activities

Link

 

Political Socialization and Public Opinion

Link

 

Week 4

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Voting, Campaigns, Elections, and Directions for Test 2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives.

Read the 
Online Lessons: 

Voting, Campaigns, and Elections

Stage One of a Presidential Campaign

Stage Two of a Presidential Campaign

Stage Three of a Presidential Campaign

The Impact of the Media on the Electoral Process

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 page.

Participate in the 
Electoral College Discussion. 

Take 
Test 2
 located in the Tests folder under the Content Tab.

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion. 

Introduction and Objectives

Link

Learning Activities

Link

Voting, Campaigns and Elections

Influences on Voting

Why is it important that Americans go to the polls on Election Day? Does our vote 
really
 count?

If we, as citizens, do not exercise our “fundamental right to vote,” we are denying ourselves the 
opportunity 
to have our concerns and interests represented in our government. If we do not vote, we can’t hold our leaders accountable for their actions. Also, if we do not participate in the political process at some level, other people’s voices will be heard and they may 
not 
share your views or opinions regarding the quality of the work of your public officials.

A common version of support and participation are political yard signs as shown.

Our vote does count as long as we do our homework and make sure we register to vote prior to an election, vote in the proper place, and that we know how to operate the voting machines. There is a wealth of information about voting in 
Ohio at the Secretary of State’s website 
. Make sure you are registered to vote 
30 days prior
to a primary election and general election!

See how certain voters (vote by gender, race, age, income, education, party, ideology, etc.) voted in the 
2024 presidential race.

Voting Reforms

Questions were raised and properly so in the 2000 presidential election about the types of ballots, alleged ballot boxes found in a closet, and possible voter intimidation, particularly in Florida. Many of you remember the hanging chads where some of the Florida Board of Elections officials had to determine the intent of the voter by peering at the ballots with a magnifying glass.

After investigating the voting irregularities in Florida, the United States Civil Rights Commission concluded that there was no intent or conspiracy to disenfranchise Florida voters. However, it found that Florida state officials did not recognize the growing voter registration rolls, and failed to fulfill their responsibilities (xii). Also, the Commission outlined other problems that made it difficult for some voters to exercise their right to vote. They are the following: inadequate voter education, insufficient poll training and lack of preparedness for a high voter turnout, the purging of state voter rolls, and lack of resources to poor counties (U.S. Civil Rights Commission xiv).

Also in 2004, Kenyon College students stood in lines with pizza for hours to cast their vote because the polling center could not absorb the higher number of voters .

Unfortunately, in close elections flaws in the voting process show up prominently; the only 
good
thing that comes out of this is that we learn more about how elections are run and can pass laws that hopefully improve the voting process.

May I vote if I have been convicted of a crime?

A person currently serving time in jail or prison for a felony conviction can neither register to vote nor vote. Additionally, a person who has twice been convicted of a violation of Ohio’s elections laws is permanently barred from voting in Ohio.

An otherwise qualified person convicted of a misdemeanor may vote, and an otherwise qualified person who had been convicted of a felony may register and vote while on probation or parole, or after completing his or her jail or prison sentence.

The voter registration of a person who is incarcerated on a felony conviction is cancelled; once that person has completed his or her jail or prison sentence, or is on probation, parole or community control, he or she must re-register to vote by the registration deadline before voting.

Source: Ohio Secretary of State. 2023. “Voter Eligibility & Residency Requirements.” https://www.ohiosos.gov/elections/voters/voter-eligibility-residency-reqs/#convicted

Since 2000, states have made it easier for felons to vote, and have permitted more voters to vote by 
“absentee”
ballot. Felons who have completed their prison terms only have to re-register to vote in Ohio. Since 2006, all eligible voters may “vote early” by casting an absentee ballot either by mail or voting at the county board of elections (Montgomery County Board of Elections). “Early voting” helped to alieviate the problem of long lines in 2008.

Voters can cast a provisional ballot if there is any question about eligibility, registration, etc.. In this way, voters can exercise their right to vote and election officials can make sure they did not vote more than once in the same election (Montgomery County Board of Elections).

As you know, the federal government passed a law, 
“Help
America
Vote Act,”
that provided $3.9 billion in federal grants to states to improve and update voter equipment in 2002. In the most recent presidential and midterm elections, some voters were using computers to vote.

Since the November 2005 general election, many counties, including Montgomery County, have used these new voting machines. Under law, Ohio can no longer use the punch card voting machines. They have used touch screen, optical scanners, and other voting systems (Montgomery County Board of Elections). Warren County voters have use optical scanners and Montgomery County voters have used the touch screen system. Secretary of State Brunner permitted voters to cast a paper ballot if they were not comfortable using computers to vote in 2008. PLS 1120 AMERICAN FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

Shown at right is a type of touch screen machine.

Ohio county boards of elections have upgraded their voting machines with either paper ballots that use optical scanners or a hybrid system in which voters use a touch screen but the computer marks the ballots (
Chris Stewart, DDN’s, August 7, 2018 article
). The counties received $114.5 million from the state of Ohio to purchase new voting equipment (
Laura Bischoff and Chris Steward, “State OK’s money to replace, repair voting  ahead of 2020
).

In 2019, Ohio voters tested out a new touch screen machine that leaves a paper trail.  Since the finding that Russia interfered with the 2016 Presidential election (fortunately, no ballots were touched), there has been even greater concern surrounding the use of computer voting machines.  Ohio’s new touch screen voting machines are not connected to the internet and Ohio officials work closely with the Department of Homeland Security to ensure there is no interference in the voting process (
Ohio Counties Look For Cybersecurity Weaknesses Ahead Of Election | News | ideastream)
.  You may view an example of Montgomery County’s new touch screen with a paper trail at 
Montgomery County Board of Elections unveils new voting machines (daytondailynews.com).

Ohio’s Photo ID Law:

Governor Mike Dewine signed the photo ID law (H. B. 458) on January 6, 2023.  The Ohio law requires Ohio voters to provide a photo ID to vote, e.g., Ohio Driver’s license, state ID card (provided for free), interim ID card, U. S. passport or passport card or military card (Ohio Governor Signs Strict Voter ID Bill Into Law, 
https://www.democracydocket.com/news-alerts/ohio-governor-signs-strict-photo-id-bill-into-law/).

To learn more about the Ohio Voter ID law, please go to Ohio Secretary of States’ Office (Identification requirements): 
https://www.ohiosos.gov/elections/voters/id-requirements 
and Ohio Voters Must Provide Photo ID At Polls: 
https://www.ohiosos.gov/media-center/press-releases/2023/2023-01-09/
.

In April 2008, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld Indiana’s law requiring photo identification prior to casting a ballot. Justice Stevens said that the voter I.D. protects “the integrity and reliability of the electoral process” (
“Supreme Court Upholds Indiana’s I.D. Law for Voters,”
 NCSL).

Do not be discouraged by the flaws in the voting process. Continue to vote and if you have any problems in exercising your right to vote, make sure to contact your local board of elections, the Secretary of State who is responsible for elections, or your state or federal representatives. As you are aware from reading the lesson on federalism, states are responsible for running elections.

 

What can you do if you are a “first

time voter” or almost old enough to

vote?

 

Why do Americans have such a low voter turnout unlike other industrial democracies?

One of the reasons Americans do not go out and vote in the numbers they should is because they must register to vote prior to a primary or general election. 
The purpose of registering 
is to make sure that citizens are eligible to vote and to prevent multiple voting (“voting early and often”).

All states except North Dakota require you to register prior to an election (Magleby 205) . In Europe, there is automatic registration and voting on the weekends. Should Americans vote on weekends? Have to register prior to an election?

 

Didn’t Congress pass a law to make

it easier for us to register to vote?

 

 

 2024 Voter Turnout

The 2024 General Election turnout was 63.9%, not as high as the historic 2020 turnout but higher than other elections since 2004 (Ballotpedia, 
Election results, 2024: Analysis of voter turnout in the 2024 general election – Ballotpedia
 ), with a turnout out of roughly 152 million voters nationally.A newrecord in Ohio for early in-person voting: 68 of 88 counties surpassed early voting numbers in 2020(WLWT5, Kurt Knue, “
Ohio Secretary of State: 2024 election surpasses previous in person early voting record seen in the state.”

The top issues in this election were the economy, abortion, immigration, and foreign policy
 in that order and the 
most important quality 
was the ability to lead with 66% supporting Donald Trump and 33% supporting Harris (2024 CNN Exit Polls: 
Exit poll results 2024 | CNN Politics
 ).  Former President Trump was apparently the  “change agent” with 74% of voters saying that Trump “can bridge needed change. (CNN 2024 Exit Polls).”  Abortion or reproductive rights was not as important an issue among voters as earlier thought (CNN reporting on election night, November 5, 2024).  72% of the voters said that the country was on the wrong track while 26% it was on the right track (CNN reporting on election night, November 5, 2024).  It was a very difficult burden for Vice President Harris to overcome.  It was still a very tight race given the concern about “bread and butter issues,” threats to democracy, and reproductive rights.

Donald Trump won 63% rural voters versus 57% in 2020 and increased his support in the cities, suburbs, and among African-Americans, Latinos, young adults, and women.  Kamala Harris was not able to expand Joe Biden’s base (Yahoo News,  November 6, 2024).  There was a distinct gender gap with 55% of men voting for Trump and 53% of women voting for Harris (CNN 2024 Exit Poll).  Overall young adults (18 to 29 years of age) voted for Harris (54% to 43%), CNN 2024 Exit polls.  Trump won the Catholic vote (21%) by a majority, 59% to Harris’ 39%.  Harris won the Jewish vote (2%) by a very large margin, 78%, to Trump’s 22% (CNN 2024 Exit Polls).

Kamala Harris won the moderate voters (42%) with 58% over Donald Trump’s 46% and she also won the Independent voters (34%) with 49% to Trump’s 46%), albeit she lost some ground with  Independent voters (CNN 2024 Exit Polls).

   Historic 2020 Voter Turnout

Roughly 160 million eligible voters voted in this historic 2020 General Election, the largest voter turnout since 1900 (66.7% voter turnout, United States Election Project).  It was the first time this country used mail-in ballots nationally due to the fears of spreading the coronavirus.  This factor and the very competitive nature of this Presidential election, and concerns about the economy, racial injustice, the pandemic, and crime and safety drove many voters to the polls (CNN’s 2020 Exit Polls, November 3, 2020).

Voters said that the most important thing to do now was to contain the virus (52%) followed by the need to rebuild the economy (42%) (CNN Exit Polls, November 3, 2020).  Voters felt that former Vice President Biden could better handle the pandemic (51%) over President Donald Trump (43%) (CNN Exit Polls, November 3, 2020).

Thirty-eight percent of the voters considered themselves moderates (a little bit conservative and liberal) and they voted in large numbers for Biden (64%) over Trump (34%) (CNN Exit Polls, November 3, 2020)

Young adults were Biden’s strongest supporters like President Ronald Reagan (our last oldest president) (CNN Exit Polls, November 3, 2020). Young voters thought the coronavirus, the economy, and racism were the three top issues facing this country (AP VoteCaste Poll, November 3, 2020, 
“Young Voters Helped Biden Win,”
 The Wall Street Journal, November 28-29, 2020, A4).  African American voters and Asian Americans strongly supported Biden but Democrats were concerned that Trump did attract more African American men and Latino voters than Republican presidential candidates in past years (CNN Exit Polls, November 3, 2020, and AP VoteCaste survey, November 3, 2020, 
“Most Black Voters Rebuffed Trump,”
 November 11, 2020, A4), and 
“Latino Voters Move Toward Trump,”
 The Wall Street Journal, November 6, 2020, A6).

What was interesting to see was that 24% of the voters voted in favor of a candidate in order to defeat the other candidate: 68% of these voters voted for Biden over Trump (CNN Exit Polls, November 3, 2020). PLS 1120 AMERICAN FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

First-time voters made up 14% of the electorate and they strongly supported Biden (64%) over Trump (CNN Exit Polls, November 3, 2020). 
Review results here:  
CNN’s 2020 Presidential Election Exit Polls
. 

President Trump and some Republican officials raised concerns about voting irregularities and potential fraud during this election citing changes in state election procedures by state executive officials and not by their state legislatures, counting ballots submitted after election day, inability to observe Board of Elections vote counting, etc.  The Trump campaign and some states sued for relief in federal court but to no avail.   The U.S. Supreme Court threw out several election challenges, including agreeing not to review Trump’s case in Pennsylvania regarding permitting mail in ballots to be counted three days after the election.  To learn about this case and other election decisions go to  Gresko, Jessica. “
Supreme Court rejects Trump’s election challenge cases
,” AP,  February 22, 2021, 
Supreme Court rejects Trump election challenge cases | AP News
 .

     2016 Voter Turnout

60.2% percent of Americans voted in the 2016 presidential election–roughly 139 million people.  The initial voter turnout numbers were around 58% similar to 2012 but The Hill reported the above tally in March 2017 gathered from the U.S. Election Project.  To learn more please visit 
The Hill.

The 
Pew Research Center for U.S. Politics and Policy
 provides updated information on exit polls for the 2016 Presidential Election.

     Less voter turnout in 2012 than in historic 2008 election

In 2008, roughly 131 million Americans cast their vote for national, state, and local candidates resulting in a near-record turnout in many years—roughly 62%, the highest since 1968. It was an historic election where race, gender, and age barriers were broken and this excited the base of each party, new voters, young adults, and voters in general to go out and support their candidates. In this election, the top issue was the economy, followed by the Iraq War, and health care and terrorism tied for third place (
Exit polls: Obama wins big among young, minority voters
, CNN, and 
Electors officially select Obama,
 Dayton Daily News, December 16, 2008).

Although there were fewer eligible voters participating in the 2012 election with only roughly 58% voter turnout less than 2008 and 2004 -about 128,556, 837 voters, we find that the young adults and Hispanics came out and voted in almost the same numbers as last election (abc5.com, 
Election results 2012: Voter Turnout lower than in 2008 and 2004
).

The Hispanic community made up 10% of the electorate, its largest turnout rate, strongly encouraged President Obama to deliver on his promise to pass immigration reform ( 
Latino groups to Obama: You owe Latinos the election, now pass immigration reform,
 Yahoo News, November 7, 2012). Republicans recognize more than ever that they must attract Hispanic voters and other minorities, women, and of course, the younger generation if they hope to be competitive in future elections. The top issue was the economy (60 %), followed by health care (18 %), and the federal budget deficit (15 %) ( 
By the Numbers/ exit poll results from the presidential race, 
WSJ, November 7, 2012, p. A10).

The economy remained the number one issue (52% of the voters) in the 2016 election, followed by terrorism (18%). Foreign policy (13%) and immigration (13%) tied for third place.  The quality that mattered most was “who can bring the most change” (39%) and the clear winner for that category was Donald Trump. If the economy continues to improve with the lowest unemployment for teens this summer in a decade and home sales continue an upward climb, it will be very interesting to see how this impacts the 2018 Congressional and 2020 Presidential races.

How did the Youth vote

(18-29 years old) in 2020?

 

What influences your vote?

There are a number of influences on voting, whether you actually go out and vote and how you will vote in an election. They are the following:

FAMILY -has the 
greatest
influence on your 
party affiliation
 -e.g., whether we are a Republican or Democrat;

GENDER-more women are voting Democrat while more men are voting Republican generally (the midterm 2006 and the presidential election 2008 , a virtual split with the men supporting Senator Obama, were the exceptions);

Men returned to the Republican fold in 2012—54% Romney and 44% Obama.

RACE -African- Americans are the Democratic Party’s 
stronges
t
 supporters among all races;

AGE -young voters have the lowest turnout among all voters; the elderly have the highest voter turnout among all age groups;

INCOME -the less income you make, the less likely to participate in the political process;

POLITICAL PARTY (party affiliation) -it plays an important role in how we vote. You are a 
partisan
 if you prefer one party over another. If you do not have a party preference, you are an 
independent voter
 (roughly 
1/3 of all voters
are independent voters);

Who did independents support

in 2020?

 

POLITICAL IDEOLOGY -how we view the role of government-e.g., Are we conservative, liberal, moderate, etc.

EDUCATION – 
most important influence on voting
 regardless of race or ethnic background;

RELIGION -the Jewish community is the strongest and most consistent supporter of the Democratic Party among all religions.

OTHER FACTORS 
influence our vote such as 
the absence of competition, the issues, and are candidates taking positions on issues important to us as voters
.

Stage One of a Presidential Campaign

Link

Stage Two of a Presidential Campaign

Link

Stage Three of a Presidential Campaign

Link

The Impact of the Media on the Electoral Process

Link

Directions for Test 2

Link

Discussion Activity 5 – Electoral College

Discussion Topic

 

Week 5

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U.S. Congress I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Read the 
Online Lessons: 

The U.S. Congress – An Introduction

The U.S. Congress – Structure and Qualifications

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 page.

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion.

PLS 1120 AMERICAN FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

Introduction and Objectives

Link

Learning Activities

Link

The U.S. Congress – An Introduction

Link

The U.S. Congress – Structure and Qualifications

Link

U.S. Congress II

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Read the 
Online Lessons: 

Different Responsibilities of the U.S. House of Representatives

Impeachment Process and Express and Implied Powers of the U.S. Congress

Leadership in the House of Representatives

Leadership in the U.S. Senate

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 page.

Participate in the 
Role play as a House or Senate Party Officer Discussion. 

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion.

Introduction and Objectives

Link

Learning Activities

Link

Different Responsibilities of the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate

The U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate have different responsibilities. James Madison, known as the “
Father of the U.S. Constitution
“, believed that each chamber should be given “different principles of action” (
American History USA, 2020
). This was one way to ensure that we would not have a national legislature that was too powerful.

The image provided is of the House Committee Chamber as it appeared during its use by Committee on International Relations chaired by Henry Hyde. The Dais is where committee members sit.

Revenue
 – 
Raising

Article I, section 7 
states that “
[A}ll bills for raising revenue (taxes) shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills”
 (U.S. Constitution).

The framers of the U.S. Constitution wanted to make sure that the people had a direct say on whether Congress should raise their taxes (e.g., tax legislation). You might remember that the colonists were very concerned that their colonial assemblies were not allowed to vote on the issue of taxes imposed by Parliament. This was one of the grievances listed in the Declaration of Independence against King George III. They could not approve the Stamp Act or import taxes passed by the British Parliament. They were used to having their colonial assemblies raise local taxes!

Also, at the time of the drafting of our second constitution the House was the only body within the new national federal government that was elected directly by the people. Therefore, the representatives in the House should be the first to consider any revenue or tax bills and then the Senate is free to amend or change the tax legislation.

 

Weren’t the larger states interested

in having a larger voice on the issue

of taxes in the U.S. Congress?

 

Confirmation Power

Article II, section 2
 of the U.S. Constitution states: 
The President ” shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers, and Consuls, Judges of the [s]upreme Court, and all other Officers of U.S.”
 (U.S. Constitution).

The President can nominate his choice to head up the Executive Departments (Cabinet – level) and independent agencies as well as sub-cabinet positions, U.S. ambassadors, federal judges and justices to the U.S. Supreme Court (when there are vacancies on the federal bench). This is known as the President’s Appointment power.

In the displayed image, President Obama signs Elenga Kagan’s commission in the Oval Office before celebrating her confirmation to the U.S. Supreme Court, August 6, 2010.

How does the President use this

power? Do you have to be wealthy

to obtain a political appointment?

 

There is a 
check on the ‘President’s use of this power
. The U.S. Constitution requires that the 
Senate give its “Advice and Consent”
 on these nominations. This means that a Presidential nomination must be approved by the Senate by a majority of Senators (at least 51 out of 100). Alexander Hamilton felt this check was a way to permit the Senate to prevent unfit characters from appointment to these key positions. (
Yale, 2020
)

Before the Senate votes on the nomination, confirmation hearings will be held in the Senate committee that has authority to forward the nomination to the Senate floor for a vote. In the committee, Senators can approve or reject the nomination or just not make any recommendation at all. If the committee approves the nominee or just sends the nomination to the Senate floor, then the Senate votes on the President’s choice. In this way, the President makes his choice, but the Senate gets to determine if he can do the job!

Below is a video of President Obama and Justice Elena Kagan speak at a reception honoring Justice Kagan following her confirmation to the Supreme Court. Elena Kagan was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on August 5, 2010 and met with the President on August 6, 2010. She was sworn in as an Associate Justice on August 7, 2010. Closed captioning is available on the video.

Did the Democrats in the Senate

filibuster President Bush’s judicial

nominations?

 

 

Treaty-making Power

Article II, section 2
 of the U.S. Constitution states that the President 
“shall have the power by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate to make treaties provided that two thirds of the Senators present concur..
”

The President has the power to negotiate the terms of international agreements with foreign countries, e.g., the terms of the Moscow Treaty (2002) and to withdraw with notice to the signatories or parties to the treaty (e.g., In 2001, President George W. Bush withdrew from the Anti-ballistic Missile Treaty of 1972 after giving notice of withdrawal from the Treaty to the President of Russia, Vladimir Putin.)

In the image, President George W. Bush and Russian President Vladimir Putin sign an arms reduction treaty (the aforementioned Moscow Treaty) at the Krelmin in Moscow, Russia on May 24, 2002.

What is the Moscow Treaty? Did the

Senate approve the treaty?

 

However, the Senate by 2/3 vote (of those Senators present) must provide its “Advice and Consent” to the treaty – – to approve it. The Senate can make changes or amend the treaty and only the U.S. will be bound by those changes. The treaty need not be sent back to all the signatories to get their approval to the changes.

After the Senate approves the treaty, the President then formally signs the treaty (ratifies) and it has the force of law (it is law).

Impeachment Process and Express and Implied Powers of the U.S. Congress

Link

Leadership in the House of Representatives

Link

Leadership in the U.S. Senate

Link

Discussion Activity 6 – Role Play as a House or Senate Party Officer

Discussion Topic

 
Available on Jun 16, 2025 12:01 AM. 
Access restricted before availability starts.

 
Available until Jul 20, 2025 11:30 PM. 
Access restricted after availability ends.

U.S. Congress III

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives.

Read the 
Online Lessons: 

Influences on the U.S. Congress

Committee Organization and How a Bill Becomes a Law

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 page.

Participate in the 
Federal Legislation Discussion. 

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion.

Introduction and Objectives

Link

Learning Activities

Link

Influences on The U.S. Congress

Influences on a Member’s Vote

When there is a vote in the House and Senate, there are a set of bells that are rung to inform the member of Congress of a vote on an amendment or on final passage of a bill. Members do not simply check who provided them a campaign contribution(s) before going to cast a vote!

A member of Congress is influenced by more than money. Political ideology, personal convictions, colleagues, party, the President, staff, and interests groups also influence how a member will cast his vote.

WHO/WHAT INFLUENCES A MEMBER’S VOTE

IDEOLOGY

A member s own political philosophy – – whether the member is a Conservative, Moderate, Liberal etc. 
PERSONAL CONVICTIONS
 – – A member s moral values.

VOTERS

A member is accountable to his constituents on election day and is in Congress to represent their interests and address their concerns.

COLLEAGUES

Other members. Members of Congress are influenced by the arguments other members make on the floor of the House/Senate and in committee. Members from their own state also influence their vote (e.g., if you are an Ohio representative, you may be influenced by other Ohio representatives).

PARTY

On important votes to party leaders, members may be influenced by their party leaders arguments.

PRESIDENT

The President can campaign for a candidate running for the U.S. Congress; or he can promise to propose $$ for a special federal project for his district/state; or he can tell the member that if he fails to get the needed support, he will propose zero $$ in his budget for his federal projects; or fail to support appropriation bills that provide such funds.

STAFF

Congressional staff can influence a member s vote because a staffer advises the member on legislation pending before the U.S. Congress.

INTEREST GROUPS

Lobbyists play an educative role in educating the member on issues of interest to their organization and they also, provide PAC $$ to help the member with his re-election efforts.

 

Kathy and Jenny will enter into a colloquy —
 a conversation — about influences on a member’s vote:

 

 

What do you think is the 
most important
 influence on a member of Congress’ vote?

 

 

The single most important influence on a members’ vote is the voters! As you might remember, the Congresswoman we worked for was strongly influenced by those individuals who lived in her Congressional District. She read mail from her constituents, and reviewed their faxes and phone messages before she cast a vote. While she was at home every weekend, she spent time with her constituents over breakfast, lunches, and dinners, while attending church, and in town meetings, and in her meetings with lobbyists and local leaders learning about how they felt about a proposed bill.

What impressed me was the fact that the Congresswoman knew her District so well! She learned about her community’s needs and concerns because she listened to her constituents. They knew that even if she didn’t always vote the way they wanted her to vote, that their voices had been heard and their arguments considered.

 

I have a question for you, Jenny. Even if the member listens to her constituents, how do the members’ personal convictions work into their decision to vote “yea or nay” on a bill?

 

 

Personal convictions on such issues as abortion (preserving life), going to war, and the death penalty take priority over where constituents stand on an issue. Generally, the voters know what a members’ position is on moral questions prior to an election. So if the member votes his conscience, the voters accept that on some moral questions, the Congressperson may sometimes have to vote contrary to the wishes of his voters.

Of course, as you know, if the voters are truly unhappy with a members’ vote, they may vote them out of office! Also, party leaders recognize that members can not always vote the “party line” because of their personal convictions. So, they do not use any strong tactics of persuasion on moral issues to gain support for legislation!

 

How does the President influence a member’s vote on legislation?

 

 

Regardless of the party, a member of Congress is strongly influenced by the President to vote on legislation the President supports. When the President calls the members’ office and asks to speak with the member, it is very difficult to say “No” to the President’s request for support; especially, if it deals with national security issues (e.g., a request for support for a military mission). It is difficult to express, but when the President speaks personally with a member, the power the President can be felt right in the office!

It is almost impossible to imagine meeting him in person and saying “No” to a reasonable request!! The President can work to influence a member’s vote by offering to propose funding for a special federal project for the members’ District or by offering to visit his District to provide a member of his party running for re-election his show of support. He can also play “hard ball” – – tell a member he will propose reducing or zeroing out money in his Budget for a project in the member’s District, if he doesn’t support his position on legislation! Most often, the President will make his case by providing compelling arguments, but sometimes even those don’t work to get the members’ support. The President has to use both the “carrot and the stick” to build support for his proposed programs.

 

 

 

Does a Congressman 
really
 listen to a staffer?

 

 

Of course!
They rely on both professional committee and personal staff for information because they 
can’t do all
the work themselves. I do think that committee staff may have greater influence because of their expertise in a particular subject area like foreign affairs. They are hired by the Chairman and Vice Chairman because of their knowledge and breathe of experience.

Personal staffers are generalists but they do research, summarize and synthesize and analyze the issues; and provide their employer with information about events, legislation, constituent concerns, lobbyists’ and party positions, and White House views before a vote.

 

 

How 
much influence does a lobbyist
 have on a Congressman’s vote?

 

 

It is impossible to escape the influence of “special interests” and their lobbyists! We generally hear very negative things about lobbyists and some of those stories are unfortunately true. However, for the most part, they are professionals and who work hard everyday to share their group’s concerns with legislators.

Good lobbyists provide their expertise on complex issues and opposing arguments rather than just their own. They are in constant contact with others on the “Hill” and can share political information with members whose world can be rather isolated. Lobbyists know the “inside scoop” about what legislation will come up or pass in the other chamber. They can tell Congressman how his constituents feel about a particular issue. Of course, campaign contributions are very helpful in getting re-elected. I will not deny it. However, it would be so easy to vote on a bill if you simply had to consider campaign contributions! If this was the case, Congressmen wouldn’t need any staff!

Committee Organization and How a Bill Becomes Law

Link

Discussion Activity 7 – Federal Legislation

Discussion Topic

Week 6

 

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The Presidency I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Read the 
Online Lessons: 

Introduction to the Presidency

Introduction to the Presidency Continued

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 page.

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion.

Introduction and Objectives

Link

 

Learning Activities

Link

 

Introduction to the Presidency

Link

 

Introduction to the Presidency – Continued

Link

 

 

Federal Bureaucracy and Directions for Test 3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Read the 
Online Lesson: 

The Federal Bureaucracy

Organization of the Federal Bureaucracy

Federal Regulations

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 page.

Take 
Test 3
 located in the Tests folder under the Content Tab.

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion.

Introduction and Objectives

Link

 

Learning Activities

Link

 

The Federal Bureaucracy

 

Organization of the Federal Bureaucracy

 

Federal Regulations

Link

 

Who Controls or Oversees the Federal Bureaucracy?

Link

 

Directions for Test 3

Link

 

 

The Presidency II

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Complete the survey, “
Evaluation of President in Roles
.”

Read the 
Online Lessons: 

Powers of the President

Presidential Powers and Roles Continued

The President and U.S. Congress Shared Responsibility over Foreign Affairs An Introduction

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 page.

Participate in the 
Evaluation of Current President in Roles Played by a Modern President Discussion. 

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion.

Introduction and Objectives

Link

 

Learning Activities

Link

 

Powers of the President

Link

 

Presidential Powers and Roles Continued

Link

 

The President and U.S. Congress Shared Responsibility over Foreign Affairs An Introduction

Link

 

Survey – Evaluation of President in Roles

Survey

 

 
Starts Jul 21, 2025 12:01 AM
Ends Jul 27, 2025 11:30 PM

Discussion Activity 8 – Evaluation of current President in Roles played by a Modern President

Week 7

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The Federal Judiciary

 

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Read the 
Online Lessons: 

The Federal Judiciary

The Federal Judiciary – Continued

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 page.

Participate in the 
Role Play as a current U.S. Supreme Court Justice. 

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion. 

Introduction and Objectives

Link

Learning Activities

Link

The Federal Judiciary

Link

The Federal Judiciary – continued

Link

Discussion Activity 9 – Role-play as a current U.S. Supreme Court Justice

Discussion Topic

 
Available on Jun 16, 2025 12:01 AM. 
Access restricted before availability starts.

 
Available until Aug 3, 2025 11:30 PM. 
Access restricted after availability ends.

Civil Liberties I

 

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Read the 
Online Lessons: 

Bill of Rights

Due Process

Doctrine of Selective Incorporation

Freedom of Religion

Freedom of Speech and the Press

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 page.

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion. 

Introduction and Objectives

Link

Learning Activities

Link

Bill of Rights

Introduction to the Bill of Rights

The National Bill of Rights, the first ten (1-10) amendments to the U.S. Constitution were not part of the 
proposed
 U.S. Constitution. In fact, one of the reasons Anti-federalists such as 
George Mason
 (VA), “
Father of the Bill of Rights
“, and 
Patrick Henry
 (VA), a states’ rights advocate, did not want the document to be approved by the VA state ratifying convention was because it 
lacked provisions protecting personal liberties
, such as freedom of speech and religion.

These men argued that states had their own Bill of Rights protecting their citizens against abuse of their liberty by state governments. They asked: Why not attach a 
National Bill of Rights 
to the U.S. Constitution to protect Americans from abuse of their liberties by the federal government?

During the VA state ratifying convention, 
James Madison
, a delegate, told Patrick Henry and George Mason that if the Anti-federalists would accept the proposed U.S. Constitution, he would personally make sure that when he was elected to the 1st U.S. Congress, he would work to pass a list of protected liberties. The Anti-federalists agreed to this compromise and the U.S. Constitution was adopted by the VA ratifying convention in June 1788.

As promised, Congressman James Madison (VA) did work with his colleagues in the 1st U.S. Congress to win the support for 12 amendments, of which 10 of 12 amendments were approved by three -fourths (3/4) of the state legislatures. Those ten (10) amendments protecting our personal liberties, known as the 
Bill of Rights
, became part of the U .S. Constitution by 1791.

The purpose of the Bill of Rights is to limit the power of the federal government,
 not the states’ governments. It was intended to prevent the federal government from abusing people’s liberties, thus preventing tyranny and oppression. At the Constitutional Convention of 1787, James Madison, a delegate, proposed that a National Bill of Rights should also apply to the states, so that states could not abuse individuals’ personal liberty; however, his proposal was rejected.

The delegates at the Constitutional Convention believed that it would be the federal government, 
not their state governments
 that would abuse personal liberty. After all, most state constitutions included a list of protected liberties. In addition, this new federal or national government would be located in New York (today in the District of Columbia), a place so far away from where most Americans lived that it would make it more difficult to keep an eye on its actions and thus, it might have more opportunity to pass laws that would infringe on people’s liberties.

So, remember that the Bill of Rights 
originally
 only applied to the 
national or federal government
 
. It was written simply to protect individuals from having their rights deprived by the federal not state governments. We will see later on in the lesson that the U.S. Supreme Court will use the 
14th Amendment 
Due Process Clause 
of the U.S. Constitution as the “vehicle” for applying most of the provisions of the Bill of Rights to the states, thus 
limiting the power of states
 to deprive individuals of their personal liberties.

Read a transcription of the original Bill of Rights
 from the U.S. National Archives & Records Administrations:

Due Process

Link

Doctrine of Selective Incorporation

Link

Freedom of Religion

Link

Freedom of Speech and the Press

Link

Civil Liberties II

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Read the 
Online Lessons: 

Right of Privacy

Second and Third Amendments Protections for the Accused

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 page.

Participate in the 
Bill of Rights Discussion. 

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion. 

Introduction and Objectives

Link

Learning Activities

Link

Right of Privacy

Link

Second and Third Amendments and Protections for the Accused

Link

Discussion Activity 10 – Bill of Right

Week 8

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Civil Rights I

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives.

PLS 1120 AMERICAN FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

Read the 
Online Lessons: 

Equal Rights

Legal Equality

Complete the assignments on the 
Learning Activities
 page.

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion. 

Introduction and Objectives

Link

Learning Activities

Link

Equal Rights

Link

Legal Equality

Link

Civil Rights II

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Review the 
Introduction and Objectives
.

Read the 
Online Lesson: 
Legal Equality II

Post any questions you have in the 
Help Discussion. 

Introduction and Objectives

Link

Legal Equality II

Private Sector Discrimination

What happens if a private employer discriminates or a private organization or club fails to admit an individual based on his/her race, sex etc.? What if a private college or university discriminates? What is important to understand is that the U.S. Supreme Court has said that the 14th Amendment and the 5th Amendment 
do not apply
 in such cases to 
PRIVATE 
discriminatory conduct.

Remember the First Amendment’s right to associate? 

The right to associate protects 
individuals’ right 
to associate together – – to join organizations and clubs. You may remember the recent U.S. Supreme Court decision regarding the Boy Scouts and their exclusion of homosexuals in their organization. The Court said that the First Amendment’ right to associate protected the Boy Scouts and they could exclude homosexuals from their organization (
Boy Scouts of America and Monmouth Council, et. al., Petitioners v. James Dale
 (2000).

Now deceased, Chief Justice William Rehnquist cited a prior decision in 
Roberts v. United States
 (1984) recognizing the right to expressive association as precedent for this decision. Rehnquist states that in 
Roberts
, “we observed that ‘implicit in the right to engage in activities protected by the First Amendment is a ‘corresponding right to associate with others pursuit of a wide variety of political, social, economic, educational, religious, and cultural ends.’ The right is crucial preventing the majority from imposing its views on groups that would rather express other, perhaps unpopular, ideas. Thus, freedom of association plainly presupposed a freedom not to associate.’” (
Boy Scouts of America
).

In 2013, the Boy Scouts of America (BSA) agreed to the following rule: “‘No youth may be denied membership in the Boy Scouts of America on the basis of sexual orientation or preference alone (
The Guardian, Boy Scouts of America approve plan to accept openly gay boys
). This effectively lifted the ban on homosexuals membership in BSA.  Then in 2015, the BSA’s governing board lifted the ban on homosexuals but provided the exception for “religious organizations that charter local BSA units will still be permitted to discriminate in their selection of BSA unit leaders (such as Scoutmasters, Assistant Scoutmasters and Den Leaders)” (
Lambda Legal, BSA Vote to Allow Gay Scout Leaders Followed a Long and Winding Path
).

Most recently, in the 2018, the BSA permitted women to join their organization (
LA Times, First Came Acceptance of Gay and Transgender Scouts, Now Girls Can Be Boy Scouts
).

How then does the U.S. Congress prohibit private discrimination in light of our right to association?
 Since the 1960s, the U.S. Congress has used its constitutional authority to 
legislate against discrimination by private individuals
 
.
 It has done this through the use of the Commerce clause (Article I, Sec. 8), the 13th Amendment (enabling clause, Sec. 2), and Tax and Spend authority (Article I, Sec. 8).

Directions for Test 4 and Course Surveys

 

To meet the learning objectives for this topic, you will complete these activities.

Take 
Test 4
 located in the Tests folder under the Content Tab.

Please fill out the 
Course Survey, Post Survey,
 and 
End of Course Survey–Teacher Evaluation 
(see top right of red tab above).

Celebrate!
 I hope you enjoyed your online experience and that what you have learned in this course will make you a better informed citizen. It’s time to celebrate!

Directions for Final Week

Link

PLS 1120 AMERICAN FEDERAL GOVERNMENT Course Survey

Survey

Powers/Roles of the President

The U.S. Constitution provides the President 
limited power
 and the executive shares power with the U.S. Congress. The 
President and Congress will share power
 in such areas as the making of law and treaties, Presidential appointments, and war. This has often caused tension between these two branches of government. We will look at this area of shared power in more detail later on in the lesson.

First of all, you need to understand that while the U.S. Congress has “legislative power”, the President has:

“executive power”
 – – 
power to carry out and enforce the law (See
 Article II, section 1, U.S. Constitution)

Once the U.S. Congress passes a piece of legislation and the President signs the bill into law, the President must:

carry out the new federal program (such as, the Medicare Prescription Drug Program for Seniors);

ensure that the law is enforced when individuals violate the law.

Shown in the image is President Trump signing an order related to the Keystone Pipeline.

Executive power also provides the President with 
emergency power
s
 and this gives the President the ability to take action to address a crisis. For example, during World War II, President Roosevelt ordered certain businesses to produce products for the war effort.

The express powers and duties of the President are outlined in the U.S. Constitution in 
Article II, sections II and III and in Article I, section 7
 (veto power)
(See U.S. Constitution).

Let us examine some of the powers of the President.

 

 

Commander-in-Chief

The U.S. Constitution makes the President 
:

Commander-in-Chief
 of all the armed forces, including the states’ National Guard when called up for service by the President. (See Article II, section 2, U.S. Constitution)

The President does not “declare war”; however, 
he can “make war” or conduct military operations
 with the assistance of his Secretary of Defense. Generally, the U.S. Congress will declare war and the President will wage the war. The U.S. Congress will provide the funding for the military operations.

However, since World War II, Presidents have sent troops to engage in military missions abroad 
without a formal declaration of war by the U.S. Congress
 
.
 The President, if his believes that U.S. national security or the security of our allies is threatened, can send troops to engage in military operations abroad. He does not need to ask the permission of the U.S. Congress to do so. He is fully acting within his power as 
Commander-in-Chief
. However, when a President believes it is necessary to put U.S. troops in harms way, he will most often notify the U.S. Congress within forty-eight (48) hours as required under the 
War Power Resolution of 1973
.

Did the U.S. Congress declare war on terrorists after 9/11 or when the President sent troops to Iraq?

The President’s power to engage troops in military missions abroad
can be checked by the U.S. Congress
. As mentioned above, Congress can simply 
stop funding
 military operations and the troops will have to come home. The U.S. Congress, at the end of the Vietnam War, worked to limit the President’s authority to engage in military missions abroad without a Congressional declaration of war. It passed the 
War Power Resolution of 1973
 that outlines when a President can commit troops and requires that if a President sends troops abroad, that they must be brought home within 
60 days
 if the U.S. Congress does not authorize the military mission.

Note: No President has recognized the constitutionality of the War Powers Resolution, although they do comply with the law’s notification requirements.

Pardon Power

Under the U.S. Constitution 
, the President can:

exercise his pardon power
 (
See Article II, section 2
) and pardon those individuals who have committed federal, not state, crimes.

Through this power, the President can wipe a convicted felon’s record clean or he can even use it if an individual has not been convicted of a federal crime, as in the case of President Ford pardoning former President Richard Nixon. Nixon had not been charged of any crime before Ford pardoned him. It was very controversial, this use of the pardon power; however, it is important to understand that the President’s choice of whom to pardon can not be challenged in the courts.

What is 
not
 permissible is that there be a 
“quid pro quo”
 
involved in securing the pardon. Currently, there is an Grand Jury meeting in New York investigating whether or not there were favors given or promises made to individuals who were pardoned or failed to be pardoned by former President Clinton.

Most often, 
the pardon power is used by the government to show mercy
 
and once an individual has served time and demonstrated that he has taken steps to rehabilitate himself, the convicted felon can request a pardon.

Did former President Bill Clinton pardon a fugitive from the law?

Did former President Bush pardon Scooter Libby?

A President can not exercise the pardon power where an individual has gone through the impeachment process and has been “convicted and removed” from public office. There was a question, during Clinton’s impeachment trial of whether or not, if the President knew that he would be convicted by the U.S. Senate of an impeachable offense(s), would he be able to pardon himself right before the vote – – before he was removed from office.

This remains a question to be addressed by constitutional scholars and the courts. What we do know is that if he had been charged by the U.S. Justice Department with perjury in giving a civil deposition in the Paula Jones’ sexual harassment case, that President G. W. Bush would have had the power to pardon Clinton. But would Bush have pardoned Clinton – – who knows? There was discussion among the “talking heads” in the media that he might have pardoned the former President.

Power to Negotiate Treaties

A power that the President shares with the U.S. Congress is in the area of treaty making. 
Article II, section 2
states:

“the President shall “have the power by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate to make Treaties provided that two-thirds of the Senate present concur”
 (U.S. Constitution).

As discussed in the Lessons on the U.S. Congress,the President can negotiate a 
treaty
 – – a formal agreement between two or more sovereign nations, but the U.S. Senate must review the terms of the treaty and provide 2/3rds support for it to have the force of law.

There are other types of international agreements that are negotiated by the President, known as 
executive agreements
 that 
do not require 2/3rds vote of support by the U.S. Senate
. Some executive agreements only need majority support in both houses, such as, international trade agreements like the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) or the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA). Executive agreements were found constitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1937 and have been entered into since President George Washington’s Administration.

Shown here is President Jimmy Carter is flanked by Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian President Anwar Sadat after signing the Camp David Accords September 17, 1978.

After Russia invaded Ukraine on February 24, 2022, Finland and Sweden sought admission to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), with Finland joining NATO in 2023 and Sweden most recently in March 7,  2024.  NATO was founded on April 4, 1949 and the North Atlanta Treaty was signed in Washington, D. C. with the United States as a signatory to the treaty.  With Sweden’s admission to NATO, there are 32 members of NATO.   NATO will celebrate its 75th Anniversary in Washington, D. C. in the summer 2024.  To read President Biden’s statement on Sweden’s admission to NATO, go to: 
Statement from President Joe Biden Welcoming Sweden to NATO | The White House
 .

Appointment Power

Another power shared with the U.S. Congress, as mentioned earlier, is the President’s 
appointment power
. Article II, section 2, also states that

“by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, [the President} shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, judges of the [S]upreme Court, and other Officers of the United States” 
(U.S. Constitution).

Presidents can choose whom they wish — individuals who share their views to head up the 
Executive or Cabinet level Departments
 and 
federal agencies
 
; 
however, the U.S. Senate must determine if they are qualified to fill the office. The President can 
nominate individuals 
who share his judicial philosophy to 
sit on the federal bench
 – – lower federal courts or U.S. Supreme Court as well as individuals who would 
serve as U.S. Ambassadors
, like former Congressman Tony Hall (D-OH), to head up the U.S. Mission to the U.N. Agency on Food and Agriculture in Rome.

One of President Trump’s nominees, Rex Tillerson, is shown at his swearing in.

Is President Obama’s use of his

“Recess Appointment” power

constitutional?

 

Didn’t former President Bush have

problems getting some of his judicial

nominees confirmed by the U.S. Senate?

 

Veto Power

A power of the President not found in Article II of the U.S Constitution, but in 
Article I, section 7 
is the 
President’s veto power.
 The framers of the U.S. Constitution wanted the President to have a role in the legislative process – -lawmaking process.

When the U.S. Congress passes a piece of federal legislation, the bill is sent to the President’s desk. The President can either sign the bill into law or he can veto it – – 
“reject” the bill and send it back
, as the U.S. Constitution requires, where the bill was first introduced. He generally sends a “veto message” to the members of Congress explaining his reasons for vetoing the bill. He may simply believe a part of the bill or the entire bill is not in the best interest of the American people. The U.S. Congress can override the President’s veto with 2/3rds vote in each house of Congress. The bill would upon the U.S. Congress’s action, become law.

 

Are veto overrides rare or is it easy

to override a President’s veto?

 

As the U.S. Constitution states he has 10 days to sign the bill (except 
Sundays)
 
and if he fails to act, the bill becomes law without his signature
.

 

Wait a minute! Why would a

President wait until the time had

passed and let a bill become a law?

 

 

If the U.S. Congress adjourns sometime in that 10-day period – -goes home – – the bill dies 
.
 This is known as a 
pocket veto.

Yes. In his remaining hours in office, President Bill Clinton pardoned fugitive from the law, Marc Rich, who owed the United States Government a considerable amount of money in back taxes. Rich is still evading federal law enforcement and is currently residing in Switzerland.

This is the first time the pardon power was used in this way. Also, in the 11th hour of his Administration, former President Clinton pardoned 140 individuals, including Patty Hearst, Roger Clinton, his step-brother, and Susan McDougal, former Whitewater partner who served time for contempt of court when she declined to answer questions regarding her Whitewater real estate dealings with President and Mrs. Clinton.

Did former President Bush pardon Scooter Libby?

No. On July 2, 2007, President Bush commuted Scooter Libby’s sentence. He did not pardon him, but exercised the power of reprieve. Libby’s case is an excellent example of the President’s use of his power of reprieve under Article II, section 2. Libby will still have a large fine to pay and he must fulfill his probation requirements. Although there is some legal question as to whether Libby will have to fulfill the requirements of his probation (since his sentence was commuted and his probation is tied to it). His record was not “wiped clean” with the President’s action, like it would have been if Libby had been pardoned.

President explained why he gave executive clemency to Scooter Libby:

“Mr. Libby was sentenced to thirty months of prison, two years of probation, and a $250,000 fine. In making the sentencing decision, the district court rejected the advice of the probation office, which recommended a lesser sentence and the consideration of factors that could have led to a sentence of home confinement or probation.

I respect the jury’s verdict. But I have concluded that the prison sentence given to Mr. Libby is excessive. Therefore, I am commuting the portion of Mr. Libby’s sentence that required him to spend thirty months in prison.

My decision to commute his prison sentence leaves in place a harsh punishment for Mr. Libby. The reputation he gained through his years of public service and professional work in the legal community is forever damaged. His wife and young children have also suffered immensely. He will remain on probation. The significant fines imposed by the judge will remain in effect. The consequences of his felony conviction on his former life as a lawyer, public servant, and private citizen will be long-lasting.

The Constitution gives the President the power of clemency to be used when he deems it to be warranted. It is my judgment that a commutation of the prison term in Mr. Libby’s case is an appropriate exercise of this power (Mr. Libby was sentenced to thirty months of prison, two years of probation, and a $250,000 fine. In making the sentencing decision, the district court rejected the advice of the probation office, which recommended a lesser sentence and the consideration of factors that could have led to a sentence of home confinement or probation.

I respect the jury’s verdict. But I have concluded that the prison sentence given to Mr. Libby is excessive. Therefore, I am commuting the portion of Mr. Libby’s sentence that required him to spend thirty months in prison.

My decision to commute his prison sentence leaves in place a harsh punishment for Mr. Libby. The reputation he gained through his years of public service and professional work in the legal community is forever damaged. His wife and young children have also suffered immensely. He will remain on probation. The significant fines imposed by the judge will remain in effect. The consequences of his felony conviction on his former life as a lawyer, public servant, and private citizen will be long-lasting.

The Constitution gives the President the power of clemency to be used when he deems it to be warranted. It is my judgment that a commutation of the prison term in Mr. Libby’s case is an appropriate exercise of this power (Mr. Libby was sentenced to thirty months of prison, two years of probation, and a $250,000 fine. In making the sentencing decision, the district court rejected the advice of the probation office, which recommended a lesser sentence and the consideration of factors that could have led to a sentence of home confinement or probation.

I respect the jury’s verdict. But I have concluded that the prison sentence given to Mr. Libby is excessive. Therefore, I am commuting the portion of Mr. Libby’s sentence that required him to spend thirty months in prison (
Statement by the President on Executive Clemency for Lewis Libby
)

How is the Federal Bureaucracy Organized?

The American federal bureaucracy is made up of:

executive departments

independent agencies

government regulatory boards

government corporations

Heads of Executive or Cabinet-level departments are members of the President’s Cabinet, while heads of independent agencies, like NASA or the U.S. Post Office, have a certain amount of independence, but are still fully accountable to the President and to the American people.

There are regulatory boards, like the Federal Reserve Board where the Chairman, a political appointee of the President, holds the office for a specific length of time and works on setting monetary policy as outlined in the law creating his office. Government Corporations, like the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), work independently as well, but under guidelines set forth by the federal government.

During the remainder of the lesson I will 
focus only on the Executive Departments
 and reference the independent agencies, government regulatory boards, and government corporations as 
“other federal agencies.”

Shown at right is Jerome Powell who took office as Chair of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve February 5, 2018.

 

Who Heads Up the Cabinet-level Departments?

When a President completes his term of office, individuals who head up the Cabinet-level departments and “other federal agencies 
“generally”
 turn in their resignation to the outgoing President. There are 
some exceptions
. For example, the Chairman of the Federal Reserve does not have to turn in his resignation if his term has not yet expired and if the new President has not asked him to step down. Also, individuals who head up the intelligence agencies need not submit their resignations immediately and will do so when their term of office expires or when the President asks them to step aside. Most political appointees will stay in their current position under the President’s choice is confirmed by the U.S. Senate.

However, Cabinet-level Department Secretaries and the U.S. Attorney General at the U.S. Department of Justice and sub-cabinet officials, such as an Undersecretary or Bureau Chief, do submit their resignations. They do this so that the new President can use his appointment power to nominate individuals who share his views and who have the ability and experience to manage a large department or agency.

The new President will submit the names of his Cabinet-level nominees (including those to head the “other federal agencies”) to the U.S. Senate. The U.S. Senate will provide its “advice and consent” and decide whether the nominees are qualified to head up a Cabinet-level department or “other federal agency.”

To view a Cabinet meeting during the Obama Administration, you can view the video: Inside the White House: The Cabinet
:

What are the Responsibilities of the Secretaries, Undersecretaries, and Bureau Chiefs?

The responsibilities of Cabinet-level Department Secretaries and U.S. Attorney General are:

 

Political appointee of President and
 must be 
confirmed by U.S. Senate
;

“Serves at the will and pleasure”
 of the President;

Develops and promotes public policy initiatives
 (domestic or international). The Cabinet Secretaries and the U.S. Attorney General would essentially be working to put the “meat on the bones” of the President’s foreign and domestic agenda;

Acts as “spokesperson” for the department.
 For example, Secretary of State, Rex Tillerson, promotes U.S. foreign policy. Secretary of Education, Betsy DeVos, advocates the President’s K-12 and Higher Education policies. They continue to promote his domestic and foreign/international policies through public appearances. They are the public face of their departments.

Supervises the administration of federal programs within their department.  
Cabinet secretaries and the Attorney General supervise political appointees and civilian and military personnel carry out and enforce the laws that come under the purview of their department.

 

Proposes a budget for the Executive (Cabinet-level) Department and submit it to the Office of Management and Budget (OMB).
 The department and federal agency heads must annually propose a budget outlining proposed spending for the federal programs under their department or agency’s jurisdiction to carry out and proposed funding for operating their departments and agencies. For example: The U.S. Attorney General, Eric Holder, would propose funding for programs under the direction of the FBI, Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF), and the U.S. Marshals Service, the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) (some non-law enforcement programs), and for the United States Attorney’s Office. In his budget, he would also outline the proposed costs for keeping the lights on, the lawn mowed, and for general maintenance costs at the Department of Justice, and its bureaus.

The Cabinet Secretaries and Attorney General, and federal agencies heads would then submit their proposed budgets for the upcoming government year to OMB.

The 
Direc
tor of OMB
 is Russell T. Vought.  To learn more about Russ Vought, go to 
Russell T. Vought, OMB Director
.

The Director of OMB would review their budgets and make sure that they meet the President’s priorities and funding levels. Once all of the departments and federal agencies’ proposed budgets are submitted to OMB they will be reviewed by the Director and approved by the President and then complied into what is know as the 
Federal Budget
.

The President must submit his Federal Budget to the U.S. Congress on the 
first Monday of February
. This is required by law (the President has submitted his last four proposed Federal Budgets after this deadline). The Congress will then review the President’s Budget and invite the Secretaries and Bureau Chiefs to come before the House and Senate Budget Committees to defend the President’s Budget priorities.

 

 Has President Trump submitted his budget to Congress for FY 2026?

Before looking at the responsibilities of the Undersecretaries and Bureau Chiefs, let us first take time to examine President Joseph Biden’s Federal Budget for FY 2025 and the Federal Budget process.

 

President Biden’s Budget for FY 2025
:

$7.266 trillion in 
proposed spending
 
for federal programs and all federal agencies, including Cabinet-level Departments.

$5.485 trillion in 
anticipated revenue
 
(obtained from individual income taxes, corporate tax, FICA (Social Security tax), and Medicare tax as well as excise taxes on gasoline and tobacco).

$1.781 trillion = 
Deficit  

$29.984 trillion dollars = Public Debt 

$37.097 trillion = Total Federal Debt

 

 

Textual Description of Image

To fully understand the Federal Budget you must know the definitions of these important terms:

discretionary spending

mandatory spending

Discretionary spending
 covers defense spending and most of the federal programs we hear about like funding for homeland security, highways, cleaning up the environment, education, national parks, space program, public housing, food and meat inspection, Congresspersons and their staff’s salaries, Amtrak etc. Discretionary programs are ultimately 
authorized and appropriated by the U.S. Congress each year through enactment of the 13 appropriations bills 
.

Mandatory spending 
which includes Social Security, Medicare, Federal pensions, farm subsidies, SSI, Food Stamps, Unemployment Insurance, and Medicaid as well as interest on the federal debt all must be paid out of federal taxes. The U.S. Congress does not annually appropriate dollars for these programs. The necessary funding is released out of the U.S. Treasury each government year to cover the costs of these 
“entitlement programs.”
 While interest on the debt is part of mandatory spending, it is 
not 
an entitlement, and interest must be paid each year by the U.S. Government to holders of U.S. Treasuries.

Balanced Budget
: federal spending equals (=) government revenue, e.g., taxes

Deficit
: federal spending is greater than (>) government revenue

Surplus
: federal spending is less than (<) government revenue Public debt : surplus minus (-) sum (+) of deficits or “Government debt, also known as public debt, or national debt, is the debt owed by a central government.  (OER,Economic Policy, Federal Debt).”   See the National Debt Clock by going to   https://www.usdebtclock.org/ . Total Federal Debt:  public debt + debt held by the government (OER, Economic Policy, Federal Debt).   Textual Description of Image In his proposed Federal Budget, the President must also outline how much revenue he anticipates will be needed to cover proposed federal spending  for the upcoming government year, and identify the sources of that “anticipated revenue.” In FY 2025, the President anticipates revenue from the following sources: Individual Income Taxes, Social Security taxes, Corporate taxes, Estate and Gift taxes, Customs Duties, Excise Taxes, and Deposits of earnings to the Federal Reserve System. Textual Description of Image   To compare the Federal Budget for FY 2025 with previous Federal Budgets click on the links below: Federal Budget for FY 2026 Federal Budget for FY 2025 Federal Budget for FY 2024 Federal Budget for FY 2023 Federal Budget for FY 2022 Federal Budget for FY 2021 Federal Budget for FY 2020 Federal Budget for FY 2019 Federal Budget for FY 2018 Federal Budget for FY 2017 Federal Budget for FY 2016 Federal Budget for FY 2015 Federal Budget for FY 2014 Federal Budget for FY 2013 Federal Budget for FY 2012 Federal Budget for FY 2011 Federal Budget for FY 2010 Federal Budget for FY 2009 Federal Budget for FY 2008  Federal Budget for FY 2007 For more information on the Federal Budget , go to: Office of Management and Budget To learn more about the History of the White House, click on the link below: The White House Click on the link below to see photographs of all of the current Secretaries / Attorney General: President Biden’s Cabinet     Responsibilities of the Undersecretary or Deputy Secretary of a Cabinet-level Department The responsibilities of the Undersecretary or Deputy Secretary are: Political appointee of the President and must be confirmed by the U.S. Senate; “Serves at the will and pleasure” of the President; Carries the administrative load for the Secretary  . For example, the Undersecretary would assist the Secretary in developing policy initiatives, preparation of the department’s budget, and with selecting personnel for political appointments; Helps run the every day operations of the department  . For example , former Undersecretary of State for Arms Control, John Bolton, helped former President G. W. Bush negotiate arms control treaties. Sometimes there are a number of Undersecretaries in a Cabinet-level Department that have different policy responsibilities, like Undersecretary Bolten did at the U.S. Department of State.     Responsibilities of Bureau Chiefs The responsibilities of the Bureau Chiefs are: Political appointee of President and must be confirmed by the U.S. Senate; “Serves at the will and pleasure” of the President; Directs major federal program within the bureau ; Directly supervises the federal employees who work within the bureau. For example , Christopher Wray, Director of the FBI, would direct the FBI to carry out counterintelligence programs and enforce federal laws like RICO and Patriot Act. He would be responsible for supervising the FBI agents and would be directly accountable to the President.

What is the Federal Bureaucracy?

An administrative group of non elected officials charged with implementing the policies created by the other branches of government

What does the term “federal bureaucracy” make you think of when you hear it? Federal regulations? Red tape? Government waste and fraud?

Have you ever thought about:

who creates the federal agencies?

who gives the federal agencies their authority to carry out and enforce federal laws?

who are federal employees?

what are federal regulations?

The American federal bureaucracy is sometimes referred to as the 
“
4th branch of government
“
 because of its shear size, responsibilities, and power it has over the daily lives of Americans. If you pay federal taxes, travel to a national park, like Yellowstone, purchase treasury bonds, receive a Social Security check, or are currently on Medicare, or simply go to the post office, you have had some contact with the federal bureaucracy. Businesses must also closely review the 
Federal Register
 to seeing if any proposed or final regulations impact their business.

The image at right is depicting FEMA helping citizens after a natural disaster.

Some of my students may be currently serving or in the past have served in the military and in a civilian position within one of the fifteen (15) Executive Departments and in the more than fifty (50) independent federal agencies. Students may also have family members who are currently employed or have formerly worked in the federal government.

Other students may wish to join the military or work in one of the Cabinet-level departments like the U.S. Department of Justice, Homeland Security or in one of the independent agencies, like NASA, and would be interested in knowing who to contact for employment and the process for hiring and firing of federal workers.

In this lesson, I hope to give you insight into the inner workings of the federal bureaucracy, as well as knowledge of how to obtain gainful employment in the federal government.

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Why does the President of the United States have the Power to Direct the Actions of the Federal Agencies, Including his Executive or Cabinet-level Departments?

As you are aware, the President of the United States has the power under Article II of the U.S. Constitution to 
“faithfully execute the laws” 
passed by the U.S. Congress. The President has the responsibility to carry out and enforce the laws.

Congress creates the federal agencies to help the President carry out and enforce federal laws it has enacted. The federal agencies, including the Cabinet-level departments, their political appointees and civilian and military personnel make up the federal bureaucracy. For example after 9/11, Congress created in 2002, the 
Department for Homeland Security 
to help the President more efficiently and effectively protect the United States against domestic terrorism through implementation and enforcement of immigration, border and airport security, and customs related federal laws.

Federal agencies must make sure that all federal laws are carried out and enforced as Congress intended and those individuals who head them up or work in them are accountable to the President and to Congress and ultimately to the American people. The Federal Bureaucracy

What is the Definition of Bureaucracy
?

“An administrative group of non elected officials charged with implementing the policies created by the other branches of government.” (Khan Academy, 2020)

Often, the iron triangle is used to describe the bureaucracy as it is a almost a pyramid shape hierarchy. Khan further describes the iron triangle as a relationship between a bureaucrat, interest group, and a committee of Congress that all work on similar issues.

In short, in the federal agencies, power flows from the top down and in order to ensure fairness and efficiency, federal employees have to follow certain rules and procedures. Individuals who work in the civil service are protected from being fired by federal law and military personnel are subject to the U.S. Code of Military Justice.

If you are a 
“political appointee”
 like our Cabinet Secretaries, for example, President Obama may fire you without cause because you 
“serve at the will and pleasure”
 of the President. Former President G. W. Bush could have “let go” former Secretary of State, Condi Rice, because the President did not like her hair style or because she wore dress boots. This did not happen, but no one would question a President’s authority to dismiss her for such minor transgressions. However, if something so unlikely did occur to a political appointee, would he have civil service protections like the federal civilian employees under his supervision? No. Poltical appointees cannot turn to the 
Federal Merit Protection Board
 for help in reinstating their job or for back wages if they believed they were “fired without cause.”

The image shows Condi Rice in Germany with American Troops in Germany on February 23, 2005.

What is the Definition of a Bureaucrat?

Often bureaucrats are long-time career government employees. They generally work under the executive branch in one of the many cabinet level departments. These include the National Parks Service and FBI (
US History 8c
).

Federal civilian personnel have often been characterized as “paper pushers,” and creators of government waste, but most federal workers are hard-working individuals who do their best to serve the American people and their President.

Today there are approximately 4 million federal workers – – 2.7 million federal civilian workers and 1.4 million military personnel (
US History 8c
). Most federal civilian workers do 
not 
work in Washington, D.C., but across the United States.

In Dayton, Ohio, you can find federal employees at Wright Pat Air Force Base and in the Federal Building downtown. If you need the assistance of federal law enforcement, or help in securing a small business loan, or help getting your social security check, you can contact your 
local
federal government offices. The Federal Bureaucracy.

What are the 
Federalist Papers?

The Federalist Papers
 are a group of essays written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay to persuade New Yorkers to adopt the proposed U.S. Constitution in 1787. These essays were published in newspapers throughout the states to win public support for the U.S. Constitution. Today, the U.S. Supreme Court looks to these essays to determine “framers’ intent” as to the meaning of the U.S. Constitution.

What are the 
Federalist Papers?